Somalia
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General Information
Introduction Somalia
Background:
 Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose a degree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. After the regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy. In May 1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by any government, this entity has maintained a stable existence and continues efforts to establish a constitutional democracy, including holding municipal, parliamentary, and presidential elections. The regions of Bari, Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since 1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made strides toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative government but has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border with Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, order still had not been restored. A two-year peace process, led by the Government of Kenya under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), concluded in October 2004 with the election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) of Somalia and the formation of an interim government, known as the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs). The Somalia TFIs include a 275-member parliamentary body, known as the Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA), a transitional Prime Minister, Nur "Adde" Hassan HUSSEIN, and a 90-member cabinet. The TFIs are based on the Transitional Federal Charter, which outlines a five-year mandate leading to the establishment of a new Somali constitution and a transition to a representative government following national elections. While its institutions remain weak, the TFG continues to reach out to Somali stakeholders and work with international donors to help build the governance capacity of the TFIs and work towards national elections in 2009. In June 2006, a loose coalition of clerics, business leaders, and Islamic court militias known as the Council of Islamic Courts (CIC) defeated powerful Mogadishu warlords and took control of the capital. The Courts continued to expand militarily throughout much of southern Somalia and threatened to overthrow the TFG in Baidoa. Ethiopian and TFG forces, concerned over links between some CIC factions and the al-Qaida East Africa network and the al-Qaida operatives responsible for the bombings of the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998, intervened in late December 2006, resulting in the collapse of the CIC as an organization. However, the TFG continues to face violent resistance from extremist elements, such as the al-Shabaab militia previously affiliated with the now-defunct CIC.
Geography Somalia
Location:
 Eastern Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, east of Ethiopia
Geographic coordinates:
 10 00 N, 49 00 E
Map references:
 Africa
Area:
 total: 637,657 sq km
land: 627,337 sq km
water: 10,320 sq km
Area - comparative:
 slightly smaller than Texas
Land boundaries:
 total: 2,340 km
border countries: Djibouti 58 km, Ethiopia 1,600 km, Kenya 682 km
Coastline:
 3,025 km
Maritime claims:
 territorial sea: 200 nm
Climate:
 principally desert; northeast monsoon (December to February), moderate temperatures in north and hot in south; southwest monsoon (May to October), torrid in the north and hot in the south, irregular rainfall, hot and humid periods (tangambili) between monsoons
Terrain:
 mostly flat to undulating plateau rising to hills in north
Elevation extremes:
 lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Shimbiris 2,416 m
Natural resources:
 uranium and largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt, natural gas, likely oil reserves
Land use:
 arable land: 1.64%
permanent crops: 0.04%
other: 98.32% (2005)
Irrigated land:
 2,000 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources:
 15.7 cu km (1997)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
 total: 3.29 cu km/yr (0%/0%/100%)
per capita: 400 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards:
 recurring droughts; frequent dust storms over eastern plains in summer; floods during rainy season
Environment - current issues:
 famine; use of contaminated water contributes to human health problems; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Environment - international agreements:
 party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
Geography - note:
 strategic location on Horn of Africa along southern approaches to Bab el Mandeb and route through Red Sea and Suez Canal
People Somalia
Population:
 9,118,773
note: this estimate was derived from an official census taken in 1975 by the Somali Government; population counting in Somalia is complicated by the large number of nomads and by refugee movements in response to famine and clan warfare (July 2007 est.)
Age structure:
 0-14 years: 44.4% (male 2,031,682/female 2,019,629)
15-64 years: 53% (male 2,423,602/female 2,410,126)
65 years and over: 2.6% (male 97,932/female 135,802) (2007 est.)
Median age:
 total: 17.6 years
male: 17.5 years
female: 17.7 years (2007 est.)
Population growth rate:
 2.832% (2007 est.)
Birth rate:
 44.6 births/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Death rate:
 16.28 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Net migration rate:
 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Sex ratio:
 at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.006 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.006 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.721 male(s)/female
total population: 0.997 male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant mortality rate:
 total: 113.08 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 122.29 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 103.59 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:
 total population: 48.84 years
male: 47.06 years
female: 50.69 years (2007 est.)
Total fertility rate:
 6.68 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:
 1% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:
 43,000 (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:
 NA
Major infectious diseases:
 degree of risk: high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever
vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Rift Valley fever
water contact disease: schistosomiasis
animal contact disease: rabies (2008)
Nationality:
 noun: Somali(s)
adjective: Somali
Ethnic groups:
 Somali 85%, Bantu and other non-Somali 15% (including Arabs 30,000)
Religions:
 Sunni Muslim
Languages:
 Somali (official), Arabic, Italian, English
Literacy:
 definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 37.8%
male: 49.7%
female: 25.8% (2001 est.)
Government Somalia
Country name:
 conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Somalia
local long form: Jamhuuriyada Demuqraadiga Soomaaliyeed
local short form: Soomaaliya
former: Somali Republic, Somali Democratic Republic
Government type:
 no permanent national government; transitional, parliamentary federal government
Capital:
 name: Mogadishu
geographic coordinates: 2 04 N, 45 22 E
time difference: UTC+3 (8 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions:
 18 regions (plural - NA, singular - gobolka); Awdal, Bakool, Banaadir, Bari, Bay, Galguduud, Gedo, Hiiraan, Jubbada Dhexe, Jubbada Hoose, Mudug, Nugaal, Sanaag, Shabeellaha Dhexe, Shabeellaha Hoose, Sool, Togdheer, Woqooyi Galbeed
Independence:
 1 July 1960 (from a merger of British Somaliland, which became independent from the UK on 26 June 1960, and Italian Somaliland, which became independent from the Italian-administered UN trusteeship on 1 July 1960, to form the Somali Republic)
National holiday:
 Foundation of the Somali Republic, 1 July (1960); note - 26 June (1960) in Somaliland
Constitution:
 25 August 1979, presidential approval 23 September 1979
note: the formation of transitional governing institutions, known as the Transitional Federal Government, is currently ongoing
Legal system:
 no national system; a mixture of English common law, Italian law, Islamic Shari'a, and Somali customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage:
 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
 chief of state: Transitional Federal President Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed (since 14 October 2004); note - a transitional governing entity with a five-year mandate, known as the Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs), was established in October 2004; the TFIs relocated to Somalia in June 2004
head of government: Prime Minister Nur "Adde" Hassan HUSSEIN (since 24 November 2007) State requested addition of "Adde" Feb '08
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the prime minister and approved by the Transitional Federal Assembly
election results: Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed, the former leader of the semi-autonomous Puntland region of Somalia, was elected president by the Transitional Federal Assembly
Legislative branch:
 unicameral National Assembly
note: unicameral Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA) (275 seats; 244 members appointed by the four major clans (61 for each clan), 31 seats allocated to smaller clans and subclans)
Judicial branch:
 following the breakdown of the central government, most regions have reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional Somali customary law, or Shari'a (Islamic) law with a provision for appeal of all sentences
Political parties and leaders:
 none
Political pressure groups and leaders:
 numerous clan and sub-clan factions exist both in support and in opposition to the transitional government
International organization participation:
 ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AU, CAEU, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), IPU, ITSO, ITU, LAS, NAM, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
 Somalia does not have an embassy in the US (ceased operations on 8 May 1991); note - the TFG is represented in the United States through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations
Diplomatic representation from the US:
 the US does not have an embassy in Somalia; US interests are represented by the US Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya at United Nations Avenue, Nairobi; mailing address: Unit 64100, Nairobi; APO AE 09831; telephone: [254] (20) 363-6000; FAX [254] (20) 363-6157
Flag description:
 light blue with a large white five-pointed star in the center; blue field influenced by the flag of the UN
Government - note:
 although an interim government was created in 2004, other regional and local governing bodies continue to exist and control various regions of the country, including the self-declared Republic of Somaliland in northwestern Somalia and the semi-autonomous State of Puntland in northeastern Somalia
Economy Somalia
Economy - overview:
 Despite the lack of effective national governance, Somalia has maintained a healthy informal economy, largely based on livestock, remittance/money transfer companies, and telecommunications. Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock normally accounting for about 40% of GDP and about 65% of export earnings. Nomads and semi-pastoralists, who are dependent upon livestock for their livelihood, make up a large portion of the population. Livestock, hides, fish, charcoal, and bananas are Somalia's principal exports, while sugar, sorghum, corn, qat, and machined goods are the principal imports. Somalia's small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, has largely been looted and sold as scrap metal. Somalia's service sector also has grown. Telecommunication firms provide wireless services in most major cities and offer the lowest international call rates on the continent. In the absence of a formal banking sector, money exchange services have sprouted throughout the country, handling between $500 million and $1 billion in remittances annually. Mogadishu's main market offers a variety of goods from food to the newest electronic gadgets. Hotels continue to operate and are supported with private-security militias. Somalia's arrears to the IMF continued to grow in 2006-07. Statistics on Somalia's GDP, growth, per capita income, and inflation should be viewed skeptically. In late December 2004, a major tsunami caused an estimated 150 deaths and resulted in destruction of property in coastal areas.
GDP (purchasing power parity):
 $5.575 billion (2007 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):
 $2.483 billion (2007 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:
 2.6% (2007 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):
 $600 (2007 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:
 agriculture: 65%
industry: 10%
services: 25% (2000 est.)
Labor force:
 3.7 million (few skilled laborers) (1975)
Labor force - by occupation:
 agriculture: 71%
industry and services: 29% (1975)
Unemployment rate:
 NA%
Population below poverty line:
 NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
 lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices):
 NA%; note - businesses print their own money, so inflation rates cannot be easily determined
Budget:
 revenues: $NA
expenditures: $NA
Agriculture - products:
 bananas, sorghum, corn, coconuts, rice, sugarcane, mangoes, sesame seeds, beans; cattle, sheep, goats; fish
Industries:
 a few light industries, including sugar refining, textiles, wireless communication
Industrial production growth rate:
 NA%
Electricity - production:
 270 million kWh (2005)
Electricity - production by source:
 fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2001)
Electricity - consumption:
 251.1 million kWh (2005)
Electricity - exports:
 0 kWh (2005)
Electricity - imports:
 0 kWh (2005)
Oil - production:
 0 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - consumption:
 5,000 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - exports:
 0 bbl/day (2004)
Oil - imports:
 4,800 bbl/day (2004)
Oil - proved reserves:
 0 bbl (1 January 2006 est.)
Natural gas - production:
 0 cu m (2005 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:
 0 cu m (2005 est.)
Natural gas - exports:
 0 cu m (2005 est.)
Natural gas - imports:
 0 cu m (2005)
Natural gas - proved reserves:
 5.432 billion cu m (1 January 2006 est.)
Exports:
 $300 million f.o.b. (2006)
Exports - commodities:
 livestock, bananas, hides, fish, charcoal, scrap metal
Exports - partners:
 UAE 49.6%, Yemen 21.4%, Oman 5.9% (2006)
Imports:
 $798 million f.o.b. (2006)
Imports - commodities:
 manufactures, petroleum products, foodstuffs, construction materials, qat
Imports - partners:
 Djibouti 30.8%, Brazil 8.5%, India 8.2%, Kenya 8.1%, Oman 5.5%, UAE 5.2%, Yemen 5% (2006)
Economic aid - recipient:
 $236.4 million (2005 est.)
Debt - external:
 $3 billion (2001 est.)
Currency (code):
 Somali shilling (SOS)
Currency code:
 SOS
Exchange rates:
 Somali shillings per US dollar - NA (2007), 1,438.3 (2006) official rate; the unofficial black market rate was about 23,000 shillings per dollar as of February 2007
note: the Republic of Somaliland, a self-declared independent country not recognized by any foreign government, issues its own currency, the Somaliland shilling
Fiscal year:
 NA
Communications Somalia
Telephones - main lines in use:
 100,000 (2005)
Telephones - mobile cellular:
 500,000 (2005)
Telephone system:
 ngeneral assessment: the public telecommunications system was almost completely destroyed or dismantled during the civil war; private wireless companies offer service in most major cities and charge the lowest international rates on the continent
domestic: local cellular telephone systems have been established in Mogadishu and in several other population centers
international: country code - 252; international connections are available from Mogadishu by satellite (2001)
Radio broadcast stations:
 AM 0, FM 11 (also 1 station each in Puntland and Somaliland), shortwave 1 (in Mogadishu) (2001)
Radios:
 470,000 (1997)
Television broadcast stations:
 4 (2 in Mogadishu and 2 in Hargeisa) (2001)
Televisions:
 135,000 (1997)
Internet country code:
 .so
Internet hosts:
 0 (2007)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
 3 (one each in Boosaaso, Hargeisa, and Mogadishu) (2000)
Internet users:
 94,000 (2006)
Transportation Somalia
Airports:
 67 (2007)
Airports - with paved runways:
 total: 7
over 3,047 m: 4
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2007)
Airports - with unpaved runways:
 total: 60
over 3,047 m: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 20
914 to 1,523 m: 29
under 914 m: 7 (2007)
Roadways:
 total: 22,100 km
paved: 2,608 km
unpaved: 19,492 km (1999)
Merchant marine:
 total: 1 ship (1000 GRT or over) 2,659 GRT/2,540 DWT
by type: cargo 1
foreign-owned: 1 (UAE 1) (2007)
Ports and terminals:
 Berbera, Kismaayo
Military Somalia
Military branches:
 no national-level armed forces (2007)
Military service age and obligation:
 18 years of age (est.) (2001)
Manpower available for military service:
 males age 18-49: 1,787,727
females age 18-49: 1,714,792 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:
 males age 18-49: 1,022,360
females age 18-49: 1,038,697 (2005 est.)
Military expenditures - percent of GDP:
 0.9% (2005 est.)
Transnational Issues Somalia
Disputes - international:
 Ethiopian forces invaded southern Somalia and routed Islamist Courts from Mogadishu in January 2007; "Somaliland" secessionists provide port facilities in Berbera to landlocked Ethiopia and have established commercial ties with other regional states; "Puntland" and "Somaliland" "governments" seek international support in their secessionist aspirations and overlapping border claims; the undemarcated former British administrative line has little meaning as a political separation to rival clans within Ethiopia's Ogaden and southern Somalia's Oromo region; Kenya works hard to prevent the clan and militia fighting in Somalia from spreading south across the border, which has long been open to nomadic pastoralists
Refugees and internally displaced persons:
 IDPs: 400,000 (civil war since 1988, clan-based competition for resources) (2006)
History
Early History

The original settlers of the Somali region were an ethnic Cushitic speaking people from the fertile lakes of southern Ethiopia. This group is sub-divided into a number of other ethnicities, which are still readily recognized (and fought over) today. Archeological evidence supports the idea that most of the coastline of present day Somalia had been settled by AD 100. G.W.B. Huntingford has argued in his translation of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written about this time, that the "Lesser and Greater Bluffs", the "Lesser and Greater Strands", and the "Seven Courses" of Azania all should be identified with the Somali coastline from Hafun south to Siyu Channel. This indicates that parts of Somalia were familiar to Roman and Indian traders by this time.

The ancient Egyptians knew the region which could include Somalia (but is more often associated with northern Ethiopia and Eritrea) as Punt, and the inhabitants were referred to as the Black Berbers. For five centuries (second to seventh century AD) much of the area came under the rule of the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum.

In the 7th Century AD, Arab tribes set up trading posts along the coastline of the Gulf of Aden, where they found the sultanate of Adel, the main port of which was Zeila.

These early villages put the Somalis in contact with Arab traders travelling along the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. In the ensuing centuries, the Somalis were one of the first peoples to convert to Islam. The Arabs established the city of Zeila (Now Saylac) on the Horn of Africa which became a central trading hub.

In the Middle Ages the formation of the clan-family political structure began to take shape, when extended families of persecuted Muslims elsewhere in Arabia, fled en masse to the frontier in Somalia. Their relative affluence made them powerful, and inter-marriage with the locals produced economically beneficial relationships. During the 1300s, the future capital city of Mogadishu came to prominence as a favorite "party town" for Arab sailors. To the west there was a lot of trading done with the people living with the Oromos, the Afars and peoples living in Eritrea.

Muslim Somalia enjoyed friendly relations with neighboring Christian Ethiopia for centuries. Despite jihad raging everywhere else in the Arab world, Muhammad had issued a hadith proscribing muslims from attacking Ethiopia (so long as Ethiopia was not the aggressor), as it had sheltered some of Islam's first converts from persecution in modern-day Saudi Arabia. Parts of northwestern Somalia (modern northwestern Somaliland) had been absorbed into the Solomonic Ethiopian polity in medieval times, especially durin the reign of Amda Seyon I (r. 1314-1344). In 1403 or 1415 (under Emperor Dawit I or Emperor Yeshaq I, respectively) measures were taken against the medieval Muslim province-kingdom of Adal (roughly contemporaneous with modern day Somaliland and comprised of both Somalis and Afars), a tributary kingdom that revolted and whose raids were disrupting rule in adjacent areas. His campaign was eventually successful, but took much longer than other campaigns at the time due to the tendency of Adal warriors to disappear into the countryside after fighting. In 1403 (or 1415), the Emperor eventually captured King Sa'ad ad-Din II in Zeila and had him executed. In the Walashma chronicle (a sort of successor state to Adal), however, the date given is 1415, which would make it by the hands of Emperor Yeshaq I that the Adal king was defeated. After the war, the reigning king had his minstrels compose a song praising his victory, which contains the first written record of the word "Somali".

The area remained under Ethiopian control for another century or so. However, starting around 1527 under the charismatic leadership of Imam Ahmed Gragn (Gurey in Somali, Gragn in Amharic, both meaning "left-handed), Adal revolted and invaded Ethiopia. Regrouped Muslim armies with Ottoman support and arms marched into Ethiopia employing scorched earth tactics and slaughtered any Ethiopian that refused to convert from Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity to Islam. Moreover, hundreds of churches were destroyed during the invasion, and an estimated 80% of the manuscripts in the country were destroyed in the process. Adal's use of firearms, still only rarely used in Ethiopia, allowed the conquest of well over half of Ethiopia, reaching as far north as Tigray. The complete conquest of Ethiopia was averted by the timely arrival of a Portuguese expedition led by Pedro da Gama, son of the famed navigator Vasco da Gama. The Portuguese had been in the area earlier in the late 15th and early 16th centuries (in search of the legendary priest-king Prester John), but had largely ignored Ethiopian calls for aid in fighting the muslims. The Portuguese needed help with their activities in the Indian Ocean so they formed an alliance with their fellow Christians, and a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army on February 21, 1543 at the Battle of Wayna Daga, in which Ahmed Gragn was killed and the war won.

Ahmed Gragn's widow married Nur ibn Mujahid in return for his promise to avenge Ahmed's death, who succeeded Ahmed Gragn, and continued hostilities against his northern adversaries until his death in 1567; the Ethiopians sacked Zeila in 1660. The Portuguese, meanwhile, established a major economic colony in Somalia, primarily engaged in textile manufacturing. The sultanate disintegrated into small independent states, many of which were ruled by Somali chiefs. Zeila became a dependency of Yemen, and was then incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.

In the 17th century, Somalia fell under the sway of the rapidly expanding Ottoman Empire, who exercised control through hand picked local Somali governors. In 1728 the Ottomans evicted the last Portuguese colony and claimed sovereignty over the whole Horn of Africa. However, their actual exercise of control was fairly modest, as they demanded only a token annual tribute and appointed an Ottoman judge to act as a kind of Supreme Court for interpretations of Islamic law. In all other respects, the local governors ignored the Ottomans. By the 1850s Ottoman power was in decline, and the annual tribute was being paid more out of force of habit, than from fear of possible retribution.

Colonial era
Starting in 1875 the age of Imperialism in Europe transformed Somalia. Britain, France, and Italy all made territorial claims on the peninsula. Britain already controlled the port city of Aden in Yemen, just across the Red Sea, and wanted to control its counterpart, Berbera, on the Somali side. The Red Sea was seen as a crucial shipping lane to British colonies in India, and they wanted to secure these "gatekeeper" ports at all costs.

The French were interested in coal deposits further inland and wanted to disrupt British ambitions to construct a north-south transcontinental railroad along Africa's east coast, by blocking an important section.

Italy had just recently been reunited and was an inexperienced colonialist. They were happy to grab up any African land they didn't have to fight other Europeans for. They took control of the southern part of Somalia, which would become the largest European claim in the country, but the least strategically significant.

In 1884 Egypt, which had declared independence from the waning Ottoman Empire, had ambitions of restoring its ancient power, and set its sights on East Africa. However, the Sudanese resisted Egypt's advance and the Mahdist revolution of 1885 ejected the Egyptians from Sudan and shattered Egypt's hope of a neo-Egyptian empire. The few advance troops that had made it to Somalia had to be rescued by the British and escorted back to their own side of the fence.

Thereafter, the biggest threat to European colonial ambitions in Somalia came from Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II who had successfully avoided having his own country occupied, and was planning to invade Somalia again. By 1900 he had seized the Ogaden region in western Somalia, which was mostly desert and only good for meager livestock production. Even today, long after all the Europeans had given up on their relatively valuable colonial possessions, Ogaden, the most barren of Somali provinces, is still frequently fought over by the two bordering nations.

Somali resistance to their colonial masters, both familiar and foreign, began in 1899 under the leadership of religious scholar Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, Ogaden sub-lineage of the Darod tribe and his mother was Dulbahante sub-lineage of the Darod tribe. Their primary targets were their traditional enemies the Ethiopians, and the British who controlled the most lucrative ports and were squeezing tax money from farmers who had to use the ports to ship their livestock to customers in the Middle East and India. Hasan was a brilliant orator and poet with a very strong following of Islamic fundamentalist dervishes all of which came from the Dulbahante tribe, these relentless and well organized warriors were Hasan's maternal relatives. They waged a bloody guerrilla war. This war lasted over two decades until the British Royal Air Force, having honed their skills in WWI, led a devastating bombing campaign against dervish strongholds in 1920, which caused Hasan to flee (he died of pneumonia soon after). The dervish struggle was one of the longest and bloodiest anti-Imperial resistance wars in sub-Saharan Africa, and cost the lives of nearly a third of northern Somalia's population: the Dulbahante lost half of their population during this era and there were heavy casualties on the Ethiopian and British sides as well. This was mainly due to the Dulbahante's refusal to sign the Protectorate Treaty and submit to British colonial rule. The Isaaq, the Issa, the Warsangali as well as the Gadabuursi signed the treaty with the British without any loss of life. The Dulbahante viewed themselves as the sole protector of greater Somalia, and resented the signatory tribes. The British colonial leaders did not trust the Somalis; therefore, immediately after the Isaaq's, the Issa's, the Warsangali's, and the Gadabuursi signed the treaty, they invoked article 7 of the treaty, sub-section 3(a)(j)(k) of which allowed the British Colonial Authority to enforce segregation rule and a head tax. It also subjected the children of the tribes that signed the treaty to CCTP (Children under Colonial Power under sub-section 3k). CCTP dictated separating a percentage of the children from their mothers for special education, although the actual intent was to instill fear into the treaty members to enforce law and order. This caused some of the aformentioned tribal leaders to regret signing the treaty and wish they had resisted as the Dulbahante's had done.

While the British were bogged down by Mohammed bin Abdullah (known to the British as 'The Mad Mullah'), the French made little use of their Somalian holdings, content that as long as the British were stymied, their job was done. This attitude may have contributed to why they were more or less left alone by the revolutionaries. The Italians, though, were intent on larger projects and established an actual colony to which a significant number of Italian civilians migrated and invested in major agricultural development. By this time Mussolini was in power in Italy. He wanted to improve the world's respect for Italy by expert economic management of Italy's new colonies, upstaging the British and their various embarrassing problems with the colony natives.

Due to the constant fighting the British were afraid to invest in any expensive infrastructure projects that might easily be destroyed by guerillas. As a result, when the country was eventually reunited in the 1960s, the north, which had been under British control, lagged far behind the south in terms of economic development, and came to be dominated by the South. The bitterness from this state of affairs would be one of the sparks for the future civil war.

By 1935, the British were ready to cut their losses in Somalia. The pastoralists they fought on a daily basis were routinely labeled "anarchists", which seems prophetic today, considering Somalia's lack of any government for the past decade. The dervishes refused to accept any negotiations. Even after they had been soundly defeated in 1920, sporadic violence continued for the entire duration of British occupation. To make matters worse, Italy invaded and conquered Ethiopia, whom the British had been using to help their effort to put down the Somali uprisings. Now with Ethiopia unavailable, the British were faced with the option of doing the dirty work themselves, or packing up and looking for friendlier territory.

By this time many thousand Italian immigrants were living in Roman-esque villas on extensive plantations in the south. Conditions for natives were unusually prosperous under fascist Italian rule, and the southern Somalis never violently resisted. It had become obvious then that Italy had won the horn of Africa, and Britain left upon Mussolini's insistence, with little protest.

Meanwhile the French colonies had faded to obsolescence with Britain's dwindling control, and they too were abandoned. The Italians then enjoyed sole dominance of the entire East African region including Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia and parts of northern Kenya.

Independence
The independence of the British Somaliland Protectorate from the United Kingdom was proclaimed on June 26, 1960. On July 1, 1960, unification of the British and ex-Italian Somaliland took place. The government was formed by Abdullahi Issa. Aden Abdullah Osman Daar was appointed as President and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister. Later, in 1967, Mohammed Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister in the government appointed by Abdirishid Ali shermarke. Egal was later chosen as President of the self-declared independent Somaliland. He died in a hospital in Pretoria on May 3, 2002.

In late 1969, a military government assumed power following the assassination of Shermarke, who had been chosen, and served as, President from 1967–1969. Mohamed Siad Barre, a General in the armed forces became the President in 1969 following a coup d'état. The revolutionary army leaders, headed by Major General Mohamed Siyad Barre, who came from the majority tribe in Somalia, established large-scale public works programmes. They also successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, in which they helped to dramatically increase the literacy rate from a mere 5% to 55% by the mid-1980s.

In the meantime, Barre assassinated a major figure in his cabinet, Major General Gabiere, and two other officials. Intermittent civil war has been a fact of life in Somalia since 1977. In 1991, first insurgent forces led by Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, leader of the (SSDF), and President Ali Mahdi Mohamed officially unrecognised, ousted Siad Barre's government. The same year, the northern portion of the country declared its independence as Somaliland; although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government.

Following the failure of Operation Restore Hope and beginning in 1993, a two-year UN effort (primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions. The UN contingent included some US troops, some of whom were killed in fighting (along with hundreds of Somalis) after crashing a helicopter in Mogadishu (as shown in the film "Black Hawk Down").

The UN withdrew in Operation United Shield by March 3, 1995, having suffered significant casualties, and the rule of government has not yet been restored.

Yet another secession from Somalia took place in the northeastern region. The self-proclaimed state took the name Puntland after declaring "temporary" independence in 1998, with the intention that it would participate in any Somali reconciliation to form a new central government.

A third secession occurred in 1998 with the declaration of the state of Jubaland. The territory of Jubaland is now encompassed by the state of Southwestern Somalia and its status is unclear.

A fourth self-proclaimed entity led by the Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA) was set up in 1999. This "temporary" secession was reasserted in 2002, leading to de facto autonomy of Southwestern Somalia. The RRA had originally set up an autonomous administration over the Bay and Bakool regions of south and central Somalia in 1999.

Somalia was one of the many countries affected by the tsunami which struck the Indian Ocean coast following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, destroying entire villages and killing an estimated 300 people.

The 2nd Battle of Mogadishu started in May 2006. The battle is being fought between the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism or "ARPCT" and militia loyal to Islamic Courts Union or "ICU". The conflict began in mid-February. As of June 5th, at least 350 people, mostly civilians, have died caught in the crossfire. Mogadishu residents described it as the worst fighting in more than a decade of lawlessness. The Islamists blame the U.S. for funding warlords in an attempt to prevent them gaining power in the lawless country through its Central Intelligence Agency. The U.S. government and the CIA have neither admitted nor denied these allegations.

The Somali transitional government president Abdullahi Yusuf told the BBC the alliance of warlords is not fighting on behalf of the government.

On 5 June 2006 it was reported that the Islamic Militia had taken control of Mogadishu, and Prime Minister Ali Mohammed Ghedi was seeking to open a dialog with them. Four powerful warlords who had been serving as ministers had been sacked. On 14 June 2006 the last ARPCT stronghold in the south, the town of Jowhar, fell with little resistance to the ICU. Reports had the remaining ARPCT forces fleeing to the east. As of this date the alliance appears near collapse with three warlords having withdrawn and a fourth reported to be considering joining them. The transitional government has approved the intervention of foreign peacekeepers.

Culture
Culture of Somalia

Islam and poetry have been described as the twin pillars of Somali culture. The clan structure and the nomadic lifestyle are also major influences.

Languages of Somalia
Until very recently, Somali was a mainly oral culture. Facility with language is highly valued in Somali society; the capability of a suitor, a warrior, or a political or religious leader is judged in part by his verbal adroitness. In such a society, oral poetry becomes an art, and one's ability to compose verse in one or more of its several forms enhances one's status. Speakers in political or religious assemblies and litigants in courts traditionally were expected to use poetry or poetic proverbs. Even everyday talk tended to have a terse, vivid, poetic style, characterized by carefully chosen words, condensed meaning, and alliteration.

Religion
It is estimated that northern Somalis began converting to Islam around the 10th century. Almost all Somalis are Sunni Muslims and Islam is vitally important to the Somali sense of national identity. Though traces of pre-Islamic traditional religion exist in Somalia, Islam is extremely important to the Somali sense of national identity. Many of the Somali social norms come from their religion. For example, men shake hands only with men, and women shake hands with women. Many Somali women cover their heads and bodies with a brightly-coloured hijab when they are in public. In addition, Somalis abstain from pork, gambling, and alcohol, and receiving or paying any form of interest. Muslims generally congregate on Friday afternoons for a sermon and group prayer. Accordance with these prohibitions depends on each individual's level of orthodoxy.

Most Somalis don't belong to a specific mosque or sect and can pray in any mosque they find. Celebrations come in the form of religious festivities, two of the most important being Eid al Adha and Eid al Fitr which marks the end of the fasting month. Families get dressed up to visit one another. If they can afford it, money is donated to the poor.
Clan system and marriage
Somali society is organized into clan families, which range from 100,000 to over one million in size. The six main clans are: Darod, Isaaq, Hawiye, Dir, Digil, and Rahanweyn. There are also a number of smaller clan groups. Each of the large clan families is divided into lineage units, typically ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 members. It is possible for Somalis to know how they are related simply by giving their name and clan membership.

Somalis deeply value the family with the strength of family ties providing a safety net in times of need and suffering.

Arranged marriages are common in Somalia. In the case of arranged marriages, the bride is usually much younger than the groom. Marriage to a cousin from the mother's side of the family (of a different lineage) is traditionally favored to strengthen family alliance, but this practice is not as common as earlier. Virginity is valued in women prior to marriage. In addition, divorce is legal in Somalia. Romantic marriages are becoming more common and are now the majority of marriages in Somalia. But even these choices are influenced by the partner's clan.

Food and drink
Traditionally, the main meal of the day is eaten at lunchtime and Somali people usually begin their day with a flat bread called canjeero or laxoox, liver, toast, cereal or porridge made of millet or cornmeal. Lunch can be a mix of rice or noodles with meat and sauce. Later in the day a lighter meal is served which includes beans, muffo (patties made of oats or corn), or a salad with more Anjeero.

It is considered polite to leave a little bit of food on the plate when eating at a Somali house. This tells a Somali host that a guest has been given enough food. If a guest were to clean their plate that would indicate that the guest is still hungry. Most Somalis don't take this rule very seriously, but it is certainly not impolite to leave a few bites on your plate.

Plastic arts
In a nomadic culture, where one's possessions are frequently moved, there is little reason for the plastic arts to be highly developed. Somalis embellish and decorate their woven and wooden milk jugs and their wooden headrests.
Miscellaneous
Traditional dance is important, though mainly as a form of courtship among young people. Saving face is very important to Somalis, so indirectness and humour are often used in conversation.

National holidays
Apart from the religious festivals, holidays include June 26, which celebrates the north's independence, and July 1, which celebrates the unification of the North and South.
Last update on 14 March 2008
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