Introduction

Norfolk Island

Background:

Two British attempts at establishing the island as a penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In 1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.

Geography

Norfolk Island

Location:	Oceania, island in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Australia
Geographic coordinates:	29 02 S, 167 57 E
Map references:	Oceania
Area:	total: 34.6 sq km land: 34.6 sq km water: 0 sq km
Area - comparative:	about 0.2 times the size of Washington, DC
Land boundaries:	0 km
Coastline:	32 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: 12 nm exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
Climate:	subtropical; mild, little seasonal temperature variation
Terrain:	volcanic formation with mostly rolling plains
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Mount Bates 319 m
Natural resources:	fish
Land use:	arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% other: 100% (2005)
Irrigated land:	NA
Natural hazards:	typhoons (especially May to July)
Environment - current issues:	NA
Geography - note:	most of the 32 km coastline consists of almost inaccessible cliffs, but the land slopes down to the sea in one small southern area on Sydney Bay, where the capital of Kingston is situated

People

Norfolk Island

Population:	2,114 (July 2007 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 20.2% 15-64 years: 63.9% 65 years and over: 15.9% (2007 est.)
Population growth rate:	0.006% (2007 est.)
Birth rate:	NA
Death rate:	NA
Net migration rate:	NA
Sex ratio:	NA
Infant mortality rate:	total: NA male: NA female: NA
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: NA male: NA female: NA
Total fertility rate:	NA
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	NA
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	NA
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	NA
Nationality:	noun: Norfolk Islander(s) adjective: Norfolk Islander(s)
Ethnic groups:	descendants of the Bounty mutineers, Australian, New Zealander, Polynesian
Religions:	Anglican 34.9%, Roman Catholic 11.7%, Uniting Church in Australia 11.2%, Seventh-Day Adventist 2.8%, Australian Christian 2.4%, Jehovah's Witness 0.9%, other 2.7%, unspecified 15.2%, none 18.1% (2001 census)
Languages:	English (official), Norfolk - a mixture of 18th century English and ancient Tahitian
Literacy:	NA

Government

Norfolk Island

Country name:	conventional long form: Territory of Norfolk Island conventional short form: Norfolk Island
Dependency status:	self governing territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Australian Attorney-General's Department
Government type:	NA
Capital:	name: Kingston geographic coordinates: 29 03 S, 167 58 E time difference: UTC+11.5 (16.5 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions:	none (territory of Australia)
Independence:	none (territory of Australia)
National holiday:	Bounty Day (commemorates the arrival of Pitcairn Islanders), 8 June (1856)
Constitution:	Norfolk Island Act of 1979, as amended in 2005
Legal system:	based on the laws of Australia, local ordinances and acts; English common law applies in matters not covered by either Australian or Norfolk Island law
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:	chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952); represented by the Australian governor general head of government: Administrator Grant TAMBLING (since 1 November 2003) cabinet: Executive Council is made up of four of the nine members of the Legislative Assembly; the council devises government policy and acts as an advisor to the administrator elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the monarch and Australia
Legislative branch:	unicameral Legislative Assembly (9 seats; members elected by electors who have nine equal votes each but only four votes can be given to any one candidate; to serve three-year terms) elections: last held 20 October 2004 (next to be held by December 2007) election results: seats - independents 9 (note - no political parties)
Judicial branch:	Supreme Court; Court of Petty Sessions
Political parties and leaders:	none
Political pressure groups and leaders:	none
International organization participation:	UPU
Diplomatic representation in the US:	none (territory of Australia)
Diplomatic representation from the US:	none (territory of Australia)
Flag description:	three vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green with a large green Norfolk Island pine tree centered in the slightly wider white band

Economy

Norfolk Island

Economy - overview:	Tourism, the primary economic activity, has steadily increased over the years and has brought a level of prosperity unusual among inhabitants of the Pacific islands. The agricultural sector has become self-sufficient in the production of beef, poultry, and eggs.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$NA
Labor force:	NA
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: 10% industry and services: 90%
Budget:	revenues: $4.6 million expenditures: $4.8 million (FY99/00)
Agriculture - products:	Norfolk Island pine seed, Kentia palm seed, cereals, vegetables, fruit; cattle, poultry
Industries:	tourism, light industry, ready mixed concrete
Electricity - production:	NA kWh
Electricity - production by source:	fossil fuel: 0% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2002)
Electricity - consumption:	NA kWh
Exports:	$1.5 million f.o.b. (FY91/92)
Exports - commodities:	postage stamps, seeds of the Norfolk Island pine and Kentia palm, small quantities of avocados
Exports - partners:	Australia, other Pacific island countries, NZ, Asia, Europe (2006)
Imports:	$17.9 million c.i.f. (FY91/92)
Imports - commodities:	NA
Imports - partners:	Australia, other Pacific island countries, NZ, Asia, Europe (2006)
Economic aid - recipient:	$NA
Debt - external:	$NA
Currency (code):	Australian dollar (AUD)
Currency code:	AUD
Exchange rates:	Australian dollars per US dollar - 1.2137 (2007), 1.3285 (2006), 1.3095 (2005), 1.3598 (2004), 1.5419 (2003)
Fiscal year:	1 July - 30 June

Communications

Norfolk Island

Telephones - main lines in use:	2,532; note - a mix of analog (2500) and digital (32) circuits (2004)
Telephones - mobile cellular:	0; note - proposed cellular service disallowed in August 2002 island referendum (2002)
Telephone system:	general assessment: adequate domestic: free local calls international: country code - 672; undersea coaxial cable links with Australia and New Zealand; satellite earth station
Radio broadcast stations:	AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 0 (2005)
Radios:	2,500 (1996)
Television broadcast stations:	1 (local programming station plus 2 repeaters that air Australian programs by satellite) (2005)
Televisions:	1,200 (1996)
Internet country code:	.nf
Internet hosts:	96 (2007)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):	2 (2000)
Internet users:	700 (2002 est.)

Transportation

Norfolk Island

Airports:	1 (2007)
Airports - with paved runways:	total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2007)
Roadways:	total: 80 km paved: 53 km unpaved: 27 km (2002)
Ports and terminals:	none; loading jetties at Kingston and Cascade

Military

Norfolk Island

Military - note:

defense is the responsibility of Australia

Transnational Issues

Norfolk Island

Disputes - international:

none

History of Norfolk Island

Early history
Norfolk Island was first settled by East Polynesian seafarers, probably from the Kermadec Islands north of New Zealand. They arrived in the fourteenth or fifteenth century, and survived for several generations before disappearing. Their main village site has been excavated at Emily Bay, and they also left behind stone tools, rats, and banana trees as evidence of their sojourn. The final fate of these early settlers remains a mystery.

The first European known to have sighted the island was Captain James Cook, in 1774, on his second voyage to the South Pacific on HMS Resolution. He named it after the Duchess of Norfolk, wife of Edward Howard, 9th Duke of Norfolk (1685-1777). The Duchess was dead at the time of the island's sighting by Cook, but Cook had set out from England in 1772 and could not have known of her May 1773 death.

Cook went ashore on Tuesday 11 October 1774, and is said to have been impressed with the tall straight trees and flax-like plants. He took samples back to the United Kingdom and reported on their potential uses for the Royal Navy.

Andrew Kippis as the biographer of this voyage puts it as follows: As the Resolution pursued her course from New Caledonia, land was discovered, which, on a nearer approach, was found to be an island, of good height, and five leagues in circuit. Captain Cook named it Norfolk Isle, in honour of the noble family of Howard (Fn.: It is situated in the latitude of 29° 2' 30" south, and in the longitude of 168° 16' east). It was uninhabitated; and the first persons that ever set foot on it were unquestionably our English navigators. Various trees and plants were observed that are common at New Zealand; and in particular, the flax plant, which is rather more luxuriant here than in any other part of that country. The chief produce of the island is a kind of spruce pine, exceedingly straight and tall, which grows in great abundance. Such is the size of many of the trees that, breast high, they are as thick as two men can fathom. Among the vegetables of the place, the palm-cabbage afforded both a wholesome and palatable refreshment; and, indeed, proved the most agreeable repast that our people had for a considerable time enjoyed...

At the time, the United Kingdom was heavily dependent on flax (for sails) and hemp (for ropes) from the shores of the Baltic Sea ports. Any threat to their supply endangered the United Kingdom's sea power. The UK also relied on timbers from New England for mainmasts, and these were not supplied after the American War of Independence. The alternative source of Norfolk Island for these supplies is argued by some historians, notably Geoffrey Blainey in The Tyranny of Distance, as being a major reason for the founding of the convict settlement of New South Wales by the First Fleet in 1788.

First penal settlement
Before the First Fleet sailed to found a convict settlement in New South Wales, Governor Arthur Phillip's final instructions, received less than three weeks before sailing, included the requirement to colonize Norfolk Island to prevent it falling into the hands of France, whose naval leaders were also showing interest in the Pacific. When the fleet arrived at Port Jackson in January 1788, Phillip ordered Lieutenant Philip Gidley King to lead a party of fifteen convicts and seven free men to take control of the island and prepare for its commercial development. They arrived on 6 March 1788.

It was soon found that the flax was difficult to prepare for manufacturing and no one had the necessary skills. An attempt was made to bring two Mâori men to teach the skills of dressing and weaving flax, but this failed when it was discovered that weaving was considered women's work and the two men had little knowledge of it. The pine timber was found to be not resilient enough for masts and this industry was also abandoned.

More convicts were sent, and the island was seen as a farm, supplying Sydney with grain and vegetables during its early years of near-starvation. However, crops often failed due to the salty wind, rats and caterpillars. The lack of a natural safe harbour hindered communication and the transport of supplies and produce.

Manning Clark observed that "at first the convicts behaved well, but as more arrived from Sydney Cove, they renewed their wicked practices". These included an attempted overthrow of King in January 1789 by convicts described by Margaret Hazzard as "incorrigible rogues who took his 'goodwill' for weakness". While some convicts responded well to the opportunities offered to become respectable, most remained "idle and miserable wretches" according to Clark, despite the climate and their isolation from previous haunts of crime.

The impending starvation at Sydney led to a great transplantation of convicts and marines to Norfolk Island in March 1790 on HMS Sirius. This attempt to relieve the pressure on Sydney turned to disaster when Sirius was wrecked and, although there was no loss of life, some stores were destroyed, and the ship's crew was marooned for ten months. This news was met in Sydney with “unspeakable consternation”. Norfolk Island was now further cut off from Sydney which, with the arrival of the Second Fleet with its cargo of sick and abused convicts, had more pressing problems to contend with.

In spite of this the settlement grew slowly as more convicts were sent from Sydney. Many convicts chose to remain as settlers on the expiry of their sentence, and the population grew to over 1000 by 1792.

Norfolk Island was governed by a succession of short-term commandants for the next 11 years, starting with King's replacement, Robert Ross 1789-1790. When Joseph Foveaux arrived as Lieutenant Governor in 1800, he found the settlement in a most disorderly state of things, little maintenance having been carried out in the previous four years, and he set about building it up, particularly through public works and attempts to improve education.

As early as 1794 King suggested its closure as a penal settlement as it was too remote and difficult for shipping, and too costly to maintain. By 1803 the Secretary of State, Lord Hobart, called for the removal of part of the Norfolk Island military establishment, settlers and convicts to Van Diemen's Land, due to its great expense and the difficulties of communication between Norfolk Island and Sydney. This was achieved more slowly than anticipated, due to reluctance of settlers to uproot themselves from the land they had struggled to tame, and compensation claims for loss of stock. It was also delayed by King's insistence on its value for providing refreshment to the whalers. The first group of 159 left in February 1805 and comprised mainly convicts and their families and military personnel, only four settlers departing. Between November 1807 and September 1808, five groups of 554 people departed. Only about 200 remained, forming a small settlement until the remnants were removed in 1813. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings so that there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from another European power, to visit that place.

Between 15 February 1814 and 6 June 1825 the island lay abandoned.

Second penal settlement
In 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send “the worst description of convicts”. Its remoteness, seen previously as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of the “twice-convicted” men, those who had committed further crimes since arriving in New South Wales. Brisbane assured his masters that “the felon who is sent there is forever excluded from all hope of return”. He saw Norfolk Island as “the ne plus ultra of Convict degradation”.

His successor, Governor Ralph Darling, was even more severe than Brisbane, wishing that “every man should be worked in irons that the example may deter others from the commission of crime” and “to hold out [Norfolk Island] as a place of the extremest punishment short of death”. Governor George Arthur, in Van Diemen's Land, likewise believed that “when prisoners are sent to Norfolk Island, they should on no account be permitted to return. Transportation thither should be considered as the ultimate limit and a punishment short only of death”. Reformation of the convicts was not seen as an objective of the Norfolk Island penal settlement.

The evidence that has passed down through the years points to the creation of a "Hell in Paradise". A widespread and popular notion of the harshness of penal settlements, including Norfolk Island, has come from the novel For the Term of His Natural Life by Marcus Clarke, which appears to be based on the writings and recollections of witnesses and from the fictional writings of Price Warung.

Following a convict mutiny in 1834, Father William Ullathorne, Vicar general of Sydney, visited Norfolk Island to comfort the mutineers due for execution. He found it “the most heartrending scene that I ever witnessed”. Having the duty of informing the prisoners as to who was reprieved and who was to die, he was shocked to record as “a literal fact that each man who heard his reprieve wept bitterly, and that each man who heard of his condemnation to death went down on his knees with dry eyes, and thanked God.”

The 1846 report of magistrate Robert Pringle Stuart exposed the scarcity and poor quality of food, inadequacy of housing, horrors of torture and incessant flogging, insubordination of convicts, and corruption of overseers.

Bishop Robert Willson visited Norfolk Island from Van Diemen's Land on three occasions. Following his first visit in 1846 he reported to the House of Lords who, for the first time, came to realise the enormity of atrocities perpetrated under the British flag and attempted to remedy the evils. Willson returned in 1849 and found that many of the reforms had been implemented. However, rumours of resumed atrocities brought him back in 1852, and this visit resulted in a damning report, listing atrocities and blaming the system, which invested one man at this remote place with absolute power over so many people.

Only a handful of convicts left any written record and their descriptions (as quoted by Hazzard and Hughes) of living and working conditions, food and housing, and, in particular, the punishments given for seemingly trivial offences, are unremittingly horrifying, describing a settlement devoid of all human decency, under the iron rule of the tyrannical autocratic commandants.

The actions of some of the commandants, such as Morisset and particularly Price appear to be excessively harsh. All but one were military officers, brought up in a system where discipline was inhumanely severe throughout the period of transportation. In addition, the commandants relied on a large number of military guards, civil overseers, ex-convict constables, and convict informers to provide them with intelligence and carry out their orders.

Of the Commandants, only Alexander Maconochie appeared to reach the conclusion that brutality would breed defiance, as demonstrated by the mutinies of 1826, 1834 and 1846, and he attempted to apply his theories of penal reform, providing incentives as well as punishment. His methods were criticised as being too lenient and he was replaced, a move that returned the settlement to its harsh rule.

The second penal settlement began to be wound down by the British Government after 1847 and the last convicts were removed to Tasmania in May 1855. It was abandoned because transportation to Van Diemen's Land had ceased in 1853 and was replaced by penal servitude in the United Kingdom.

Settlement by Pitcairn Islanders
On 6 June 1856, another group of exiles arrived at Norfolk Island. These were the descendants of Tahitians and the HMAV Bounty mutineers, resettled from the Pitcairn Islands which had become too small for their growing population. The British government had permitted the transfer of the Pitcairners to Norfolk, which was thus established as a colony separate from New South Wales but under the administration of that colony's governor.

The Pitcairn people occupied many of the buildings remaining from the penal settlements, and gradually established their traditional farming and whaling industries on the island. Although some families decided to return to Pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island's population continued to slowly grow as the island accepted settlers, often arriving with whaling fleets.

In 1867, the headquarters of the Melanesian Mission of the Church of England were established on the island, and in 1882 a church of St. Barnabas was erected to the memory of the Mission's head Bishop John Coleridge Patteson, with windows designed by Burne-Jones and executed by William Morris. In 1920 the Mission was relocated from the island to the Solomon Islands to be closer to its target population.

20th century
After the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, Norfolk Island was placed under the authority of the new Commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory.

During World War II, the island was used as a key airbase and refuelling location between Australia and New Zealand. As the island fell within New Zealand's area of responsibility it was garrisoned by a New Zealand Army unit known as N Force. Norfolk Island did not, however, come under attack during the war.

In 1979, Norfolk was granted self-government by Australia, under which the island elects a government which runs most of the island's affairs. As such, residents of Norfolk Island are not represented in the Commonwealth Parliament of Australia, making them the only group of residents of an Australian state or territory not represented there.

As of 2006, a review is underway whereby the Australian Government is considering revising this model of government.

Most Islanders are of Caucasian ancestry, being descendants of the Bounty mutineers as well as more recent arrivals from Australia and New Zealand. About half of the islanders can trace their roots back to Pitcairn Island.

This common heritage has led to a limited number of surnames among the Islanders — a limit constraining enough that the island's telephone directory lists people by nickname (such as Cane Toad, Dar Bizziebee, Kik Kik, Lettuce Leaf, Mutty, Oot, Paw Paw, Snoop, Tarzan, and Wiggy).

The majority of Islanders are Protestant Christians. In 1996, 37.4% identified as Anglican, 14.5% as Uniting Church, 11.5% as Roman Catholic and 3.1% as Seventh-day Adventist.

Literacy is not recorded officially, but it can be assumed to be roughly at a par with Australia's literacy rate.

Islanders speak both English and a creole language known as Norfuk, a blend of 1700s-English and Tahitian. The Norfuk language is decreasing in popularity as more tourists travel to the island and more young people leave for work and study reasons; however, there are efforts to keep it alive via dictionaries and the renaming of some tourist attractions to their Norfuk equivalents. In April 2005, it was declared a co-official language of the island.

Emigration is growing as many Islanders take advantage of the close ties between Norfolk and Australia and New Zealand. The sole school on the island provides education to Australian Year 12; therefore, any student seeking to complete tertiary study must travel overseas. Additionally, the small economy of the island causes many skilled workers to emigrate as well.

One of the island's residents is the novelist Colleen McCullough, whose works include The Thorn Birds and the Masters of Rome series as well as Morgan's Run, set, in large part, on Norfolk Island.

Helen Reddy also moved to the island for a period but was denied a long term entry permit and has since moved on.

Last update on 13 March 2008