Introduction

Lebanon

Background:

Following the capture of Syria from the Ottoman Empire by Anglo-French forces in 1918, France received a mandate over this territory and separated out a region of Lebanon in 1920. France granted this area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war (1975-1990) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made progress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese established a more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections, most militias have been disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended authority over about two-thirds of the country. Hizballah, a radical Shi'a organization listed by the US State Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, retains its weapons. During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000 and the passage in October 2004 of UNSCR 1559 - a resolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in Lebanese affairs -encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The assassination of former Prime Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 20 others in February 2005 led to massive demonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the Cedar Revolution"), and Syria withdrew the remainder of its military forces in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held its first legislative elections since the end of the civil war free of foreign interference, handing a majority to the bloc led by Saad HARIRI, the slain prime minister's son. Lebanon continues to be plagued by violence - Hizballah kidnapped two Israeli soldiers in July 2006 leading to a 34-day conflict with Israel. The LAF in May-September 2007 battled Sunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-Barid Palestinian refugee camp; and the country has witnessed a string of politically motivated assassinations since the death of Rafiq HARIRI. Lebanese politicians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor to Emile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a political vacuum.

Geography

Lebanon

Location:	Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Israel and Syria
Geographic coordinates:	33 50 N, 35 50 E
Map references:	Middle East
Area:	total: 10,400 sq km land: 10,230 sq km water: 170 sq km
Area - comparative:	about 0.7 times the size of Connecticut
Land boundaries:	total: 454 km border countries: Israel 79 km, Syria 375 km
Coastline:	225 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate:	Mediterranean; mild to cool, wet winters with hot, dry summers; Lebanon mountains experience heavy winter snows
Terrain:	narrow coastal plain; El Beqaa (Bekaa Valley) separates Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m highest point: Qurnat as Sawda' 3,088 m
Natural resources:	limestone, iron ore, salt, water-surplus state in a water-deficit region, arable land
Land use:	arable land: 16.35% permanent crops: 13.75% other: 69.9% (2005)
Irrigated land:	1,040 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources:	4.8 cu km (1997)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):	total: 1.38 cu km/yr (33%/1%/67%) per capita: 385 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards:	dust storms, sandstorms
Environment - current issues:	deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes; pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills
Environment - international agreements:	party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Life Conservation
Geography - note:	Nahr el Litani is the only major river in Near East not crossing an international boundary; rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity

People

Lebanon

Population:	3,925,502 (July 2007 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 26.2% (male 525,199/female 504,240) 15-64 years: 66.7% (male 1,255,624/female 1,361,265) 65 years and over: 7.1% (male 125,904/female 153,270) (2007 est.)
Median age:	total: 28.3 years male: 27.2 years female: 29.5 years (2007 est.)
Population growth rate:	1.198% (2007 est.)
Birth rate:	18.08 births/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Death rate:	6.1 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Net migration rate:	0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.042 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.922 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.821 male(s)/female total population: 0.944 male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 23.39 deaths/1,000 live births male: 25.94 deaths/1,000 live births female: 20.71 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 73.15 years male: 70.67 years female: 75.77 years (2007 est.)
Total fertility rate:	1.88 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	0.1% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	2,800 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	less than 200 (2003 est.)
Nationality:	noun: Lebanese (singular and plural) adjective: Lebanese
Ethnic groups:	Arab 95%, Armenian 4%, other 1% note: many Christian Lebanese do not identify themselves as Arab but rather as descendents of the ancient Canaanites and prefer to be called Phoenicians
Religions:	Muslim 59.7% (Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1.3% note: 17 religious sects recognized
Languages:	Arabic (official), French, English, Armenian
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 87.4% male: 93.1% female: 82.2% (2003 est.)

Government

Lebanon

Country name:	conventional long form: Lebanese Republic conventional short form: Lebanon local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Lubnaniyah local short form: Lubnan former: Greater Lebanon
Government type:	republic
Capital:	name: Beirut geographic coordinates: 33 52 N, 35 30 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last Sunday in October
Administrative divisions:	8 governorates (mohafazat, singular - mohafazah); Aakar, Baalbek-Hermel, Beqaa, Beyrouth, Liban-Nord, Liban-Sud, Mont-Liban, Nabatiye
Independence:	22 November 1943 (from League of Nations mandate under French administration)
National holiday:	Independence Day, 22 November (1943)
Constitution:	23 May 1926; amended a number of times, most recently Charter of Lebanese National Reconciliation (Ta'if Accord) of October 1989
Legal system:	mixture of Ottoman law, canon law, Napoleonic code, and civil law; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage:	21 years of age; compulsory for all males; authorized for women at age 21 with elementary education
Executive branch:	chief of state: vacant (as of 24 November 2007); note - former President Emile LAHUD's term expired on 23 November 2007, and the Cabinet temporarily assumed presidential powers head of government: Prime Minister Fuad SINIORA (since 30 June 2005); Deputy Prime Minister Elias MURR (since April 2005) cabinet: Cabinet chosen by the prime minister in consultation with the president and members of the National Assembly elections: president elected by the National Assembly for a six-year term (may not serve consecutive terms); election last held 15 October 1998 (next election orginally scheduled for fall 2004 but was postponed beyond the constitutionally mandated 23 November deadline; under Syrian pressure, Parliament extended Lahoud's term for three years); the prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the president in consultation with the National Assembly; by agreement, the president is a Maronite Christian, the prime minister is a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the National Assembly is a Shi'a Muslim election results: for 15 October 1998 election: Emile LAHUD elected president; National Assembly vote - 118 votes in favor, 0 against, 10 abstentions
Legislative branch:	unicameral National Assembly or Majlis Alnuwab (Arabic) or Assemblee Nationale (French) (128 seats; members elected by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: last held in four rounds on 29 May, 5, 12, 19 June 2005 (next to be held 2009) election results: percent of vote by group - NA; seats by group - Future Movement Bloc 36; Democratic Gathering 15; Development and Resistance Bloc 15; Free Patriotic Movement 15; Loyalty to the Resistance 14; Qornet Shewan 6; Lebanese Forces 5; Popular Bloc 4; Tripoli Independent Bloc 3; Kataeb Reform Movement 2; Syrian National Socialist Party 2; Tashnaq 2; Syrian Ba'th Party 1; Democratic Left 1; Democratic Renewal Movement 1; Kataeb Party 1; Nasserite Popular Movement 1; independent 4
Judicial branch:	four Courts of Cassation (three courts for civil and commercial cases and one court for criminal cases); Constitutional Council (called for in Ta'if Accord - rules on constitutionality of laws); Supreme Council (hears charges against the president and prime minister as needed)
Political parties and leaders:	14 March Coalition: Democratic Gathering Bloc [Walid JUNBLATT, leader of Progressive Socialist Party]; Democratic Left [Ilyas ATALLAH]; Democratic Renewal Movement [Nassib LAHUD]; Future Movement Bloc [Sa'ad HARIRI]; Kataeb Party [Amine GEMAYEL]; Lebanese Forces [Samir JA'JA]; Tripoli Independent Bloc Change and Reform Alliance Bloc: Free Patriotic Movement [Michel AWN]; Metn Bloc [Michel MURR]; Popular Bloc [Elias SKAFF]; Tashnaq Hizballah and Amal Alliance: Development and Resistance Bloc [Nabih BERRI, leader of Amal Movement]; Hizballah Party [Hassan NASRALLAH]; Loyalty to the Resistance [Mohammad RA'AD]; Nasserite Popular Movement [Ussama SAAD]; Syrian Ba'th Party [Sayez SHUKR]; Syrian Social Nationalist Party [Ali QANSO]
Political pressure groups and leaders:	none
International organization participation:	ABEDA, ACCT, AFESD, AMF, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, OIF, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (observer)
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Antoine CHEDID chancery: 2560 28th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 939-6300 FAX: [1] (202) 939-6324 consulate(s) general: Detroit, New York, Los Angeles
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Michele J. SISON embassy: Awkar, Lebanon; (Awkar facing the Municipality) mailing address: P. O. Box 70-840, Antelias, Lebanon; from US: US Embassy Beirut, 6070 Beirut Place, Washington, DC 20521-6070 telephone: [961] (4) 542600, 543600 FAX: [961] (4) 544136
Flag description:	three horizontal bands consisting of red (top), white (middle, double width), and red (bottom) with a green cedar tree centered in the white band

Economy

Lebanon

Economy - overview:	The 1975-90 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. In the years since, Lebanon has rebuilt much of its war-torn physical and financial infrastructure by borrowing heavily - mostly from domestic banks. In an attempt to reduce the ballooning national debt, the Rafiq HARIRI government began an austerity program, reining in government expenditures, increasing revenue collection, and privatizing state enterprises, but economic and financial reform initiatives stalled and public debt continued to grow despite receipt of more than $2 billion in bilateral assistance at the Paris II Donors Conference. The Israeli-Hizballah conflict in July-August 2006 caused an estimated $3.6 billion in infrastructure damage, and prompted international donors to pledge nearly $1 billion in recovery and reconstruction assistance. Donors met again in January 2007 and pledged over $7.5 billion to Lebanon for development projects and budget support, conditioned on progress on Beirut's fiscal reform and privatization program. Internal Lebanese political tension continues to hamper economic activity, particularly in the tourism and retail sectors.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$40.65 billion (2007 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):	$24 billion (2007 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:	0.3% (2007 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):	$10,400 (2007 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:	agriculture: 5.2% industry: 18.4% services: 76.4% (2007 est.)
Labor force:	1.5 million note: in addition, there are as many as 1 million foreign workers (2005 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA%
Unemployment rate:	20% (2006 est.)
Population below poverty line:	28% (1999 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:	lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices):	5.6% (2007 est.)
Investment (gross fixed):	19.4% of GDP (2007 est.)
Budget:	revenues: $6.116 billion expenditures: $9.421 billion (2007 est.)
Public debt:	188% of GDP (2007 est.)
Agriculture - products:	citrus, grapes, tomatoes, apples, vegetables, potatoes, olives, tobacco; sheep, goats
Industries:	banking, tourism, food processing, wine, jewelry, cement, textiles, mineral and chemical products, wood and furniture products, oil refining, metal fabricating
Industrial production growth rate:	NA%
Electricity - production:	9.183 billion kWh (2005)
Electricity - production by source:	fossil fuel: 97.2% hydro: 2.8% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)
Electricity - consumption:	10.58 billion kWh (2005)
Electricity - exports:	0 kWh (2005)
Electricity - imports:	455 million kWh (2005)
Oil - production:	0 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - consumption:	106,000 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - exports:	0 bbl/day (2004)
Oil - imports:	102,300 bbl/day (2004)
Oil - proved reserves:	0 bbl (1 January 2006 est.)
Natural gas - production:	0 cu m (2005 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:	0 cu m (2005 est.)
Natural gas - exports:	0 cu m (2005 est.)
Natural gas - imports:	0 cu m (2005)
Natural gas - proved reserves:	0 cu m (1 January 2006 est.)
Current account balance:	$-3.337 billion (2007 est.)
Exports:	$3.099 billion f.o.b. (2007 est.)
Exports - commodities:	authentic jewelry, inorganic chemicals, miscellaneous consumer goods, fruit and vegetables, tobacco, construction minerals, electric power machinery and switchgear, textile fibers, paper
Exports - partners:	Syria 26.8%, UAE 12%, Switzerland 6%, Saudi Arabia 5.7%, Turkey 4.5% (2006)
Imports:	$10 billion f.o.b. (2007 est.)
Imports - commodities:	petroleum products, cars, medicinal products, clothing, meat and live animals, consumer goods, paper, textile fabrics, tobacco, electrical machinery
Imports - partners:	Syria 11.6%, Italy 9.8%, US 9.3%, France 7.7%, Germany 6.1%, China 5%, Saudi Arabia 4.7% (2006)
Economic aid - recipient:	Of the $7.6 billion in grants and loans pledged to Lebanon at the Paris III conference in January 2007, Beirut as of mid-December 2007 had signed agreements for $3 billion, including $1 billion in project financing, $750 million in direct budget support, $750 million in private sector credit, and $285 million in in-kind aid. About $500 million of the $1.7 billion pledged for direct budget support has been disbursed to Lebanon. Donors in August 2006 also pledged nearly $1.8 billion in aid to help Lebanon recover from the 2006 Israel-Hizballah war. During the conflict, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait provided $1.5 billion in concessional loans to the Lebanese central bank to maintain confidence in the Lebanese currency. (2005)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:	$19.4 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Debt - external:	$34.67 billion (31 December 2007 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home:	$NA
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad:	$NA
Market value of publicly traded shares:	$8.279 billion (2006)
Currency (code):	Lebanese pound (LBP)
Currency code:	LBP
Exchange rates:	Lebanese pounds per US dollar - 1,507.5 (2007), 1,507.5 (2006), 1,507.5 (2005), 1,507.5 (2004), 1,507.5 (2003)
Fiscal year:	calendar year

Communications

Lebanon

Telephones - main lines in use:	681,400 (2006)
Telephones - mobile cellular:	1.103 million (2006)
Telephone system:	general assessment: repair of the telecommunications system, severely damaged during the civil war, now complete domestic: two wireless networks provide good service; political instability hampers privatization and deployment of new technologies; combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular subscribership approaching 50 per 100 persons international: country code - 961; submarine cable link to Cyprus; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean); coaxial cable to Syria
Radio broadcast stations:	AM 20, FM 22, shortwave 4 (1998)
Radios:	2.85 million (1997)
Television broadcast stations:	15 (plus 5 repeaters) (1995)
Televisions:	1.18 million (1997)
Internet country code:	.lb
Internet hosts:	5,635 (2007)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):	22 (2000)
Internet users:	950,000 (2006)

Transportation

Lebanon

Airports:	7 (2007)
Airports - with paved runways:	total: 5 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2007)
Airports - with unpaved runways:	total: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2007)
Pipelines:	gas 43 km (2007)
Railways:	total: 401 km standard gauge: 319 km 1.435 m narrow gauge: 82 km 1.050 m note: rail system became unusable because of damage done during fighting in the 1980s and in 2006 (2006)
Roadways:	total: 7,300 km paved: 6,198 km unpaved: 1,102 km (1999)
Merchant marine:	total: 35 ships (1000 GRT or over) 132,871 GRT/140,011 DWT by type: bulk carrier 3, cargo 14, livestock carrier 12, passenger/cargo 1, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 2, vehicle carrier 2 foreign-owned: 3 (Greece 2, Syria 1) registered in other countries: 55 (Antigua and Barbuda 1, Barbados 1, Cambodia 7, Comoros 5, Cyprus 1, Dominica 1, Egypt 1, Georgia 3, Honduras 2, Hong Kong 1, North Korea 3, Liberia 2, Malta 12, Mongolia 1, Panama 3, St Vincent and The Grenadines 7, Syria 4, unknown 2) (2007)
Ports and terminals:	Beirut, Tripoli

Military

Lebanon

Military branches:	Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF): Army, Navy, and Air Force (2007)
Military service age and obligation:	18-30 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; in May 2005, conscript service obligation reduced from 12 to 6 months over a 2-year period; conscripts eligible to volunteer for 5 years of military service upon completing 6 months of conscript service; Lebanon is moving toward a predominantly professional armed forces (2005)
Manpower available for military service:	males age 18-49: 974,363 females age 18-49: 1,024,273 (2005 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:	males age 18-49: 821,762 females age 18-49: 865,770 (2005 est.)
Military expenditures - percent of GDP:	3.1% (2005 est.)

Transnational Issues

Lebanon

Disputes - international:	lacking a treaty or other documentation describing the boundary, portions of the Lebanon-Syria boundary are unclear with several sections in dispute; since 2000, Lebanon has claimed Shab'a Farms area in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights; the roughly 2,000-strong UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) has been in place since 1978
Refugees and internally displaced persons:	refugees (country of origin): 405,425 (Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA)), 20,000-40,000 (Iraq) IDPs: 17,000 (1975-90 civil war, Israeli invasions), 200,000 (July-August 2006 war) (2006)
Illicit drugs:	cannabis cultivation dramatically reduced to 2,500 hectares in 2002 despite continued significant cannabis consumption; opium poppy cultivation minimal; small amounts of Latin American cocaine and Southwest Asian heroin transit country on way to European markets and for Middle Eastern consumption; money laundering of drug proceeds fuels concern that extremists are benefiting from drug trafficking

History of Lebanon

The Phoenicians spoke the Phoenecian language, later called Punic since the Roman word for purple was Puniceus. In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians, contrary to some reports, wrote many books that have not survived. Evangelical Preparation by Eusebius of Caesarea quotes extensively from Philo of Byblos and Sanchuniathon. Furthermore, the Phoenician Punic colonies of North Africa continued to be a source of knowledge about the Phoenicians. Saint Augustine knew at least a smattering of Punic and occasionally uses it to explain cognate words found in Hebrew. The name of his mother, Saint Monica, is said to be of Punic origin as well. The region was a territory of the Roman Empire in the province of Syria and during the Middle Ages was important in the Crusades. It was later taken by the Ottoman Empire.

Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces of present-day Lebanon to France.

Lebanon's modern constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of political power among the major religious groups.

The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's history from independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.

Lebanon's independence from the French was gradualy eroded as many of its leaders sought foreign support from regional and international powers to sustain their roles in Lebanon's politics. In 1976, Syrian troops entered Lebanon under false pretenses to end the civil war; Syrian intervention would eventually erode what was left of Lebanon's independence and turn Lebanon into a warzone to settle regional conflicts. In 2005, Lebanon regained its independence from Syria following Resolution 1559 by the United Nations Security Council.

The 1975-1990 war
Until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut, the capital of Lebanon, was noted for its wide boulevards, French-style architecture, and modernity, and was called "the Paris of the Middle East." Lebanon as a whole was known as the Switzerland of the Middle East (Swisra Ash Shark), enjoying a similar conflict-free status as Costa Rica in Central America and (until recently) Uruguay in South America.

The term "Civil War" is not adequate due to the complexity and foreign (Iranian-Israeli-Palestenian-Syrian) military forces role in the 1975-1990 war.

Beginning of the war
After the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 Palestinian refugees who had fled from Israel. More Palestinian refugees arrived after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and Black September. By 1975 they numbered more than 300,000 with Yassir Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in charge of their political and military activities. During the early 1970s difficulties arose over the increase of Palestinian refugees in the south. Initially, the fighting began between these Palestinians (referred to as "anti-Lebanese militias" by some) and the indigenous Lebanese "leftists" (the communists and socialist parties.) As the fighting intensified the sides involved became more distinct. On one side was the Christian resistance lead first by Bachir Gemayel then by Samir Geagea. The other side comprised a coalition of Palestinians refugees, Sunni Muslim, and Druze forces who were united in their detestation of the 1943 National Pact. The civil war left the nation with no effective central government.

Syrian intervention and occupation
In June, 1976 Syria sent 40,000 troops into Lebanon to prevent the Maronite militias from being overrun by Palestinian forces. The fact that Baathist Syrians were fighting against Palestinians was ironic. Together the Syrians and Maronites pushed the Palestinians out of Beirut and into southern Lebanon. Over the next few years, shifting political climates resulted in Syria being allied with the Palestinians and some of the Maronites allied with Israel. Syrian forces remained in Lebanon, effectively dominating its government and occupying the country until 2005.

First Israeli invasion and occupation
Cross-border attacks by Palestinian groups in southern Lebanon against civilians in Israeli territory led to an invasion by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) on March 14, 1978 in what was titled the Litani River Operation. A few days later, the United Nations Security Council passed resolutions 425 and 426, calling for the withdrawal of Israeli forces, and establishing an international peace-keeping force in southern Lebanon, the United Nations Interim Force In Lebanon (UNIFIL). Three months later, on June 13, 1978, Israel completed the withdrawal of its troops, and turned over control of southern Lebanon to the SLA.

Second Israeli invasion and occupation
The PLO's armed forces continued to use Lebanon as a base to attack Israel with rockets and artillery, and on June 6, 1982 Israel again invaded Lebanon with the objective of evicting the PLO. Israeli forces occupied areas from the southern Lebanese border with Israel northward into areas of Beirut. During this invasion the Phalangist militia, under the command of Elie Hobeika, moved into the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps, with the knowledge of Israeli Defense Minister Ariel Sharon, and committed the first Sabra and Shatila massacre. Israel's plans for Lebanon suffered a severe setback on September 14, 1982, with the assassination of the Phalangist leader and President-elect Bachir Gemayel, who was regarded as secretly sympathetic to Israel.

To date, there is no formal declaration of war between Lebanon and Israel, despite the lack of communication between the two nations.

International mediation
A multinational force landed in Beirut on August 20, 1982 to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon, and US mediation resulted in the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut.

This period saw the rise of radicalism among the country's factions, and a number of landmark terrorist attacks against American forces, including the destruction of the US Embassy by a truck bomb and an even deadlier attack on the US Marines barracks.

1988 and 1989 saw unprecedented chaos. The Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Amine Gemayel (who had replaced his slain brother Bachir in 1982), whose term expired on 23 September. Fifteen minutes before his term expired, Gemayel appointed an interim administration headed by the army commander, General Michel Aoun. His predecessor, Selim al-Hoss, refused to accept his dismissal in Aoun's favour. Lebanon was thus left with no President, and two rival governments that feuded for power, and more than 40 private militias.

End of the war
The 1989 Arab League-sponsored Taif Agreement marked the beginning of the end of the military war, but not the end of the Syrian occupation nor the economic war against Lebanon. It is estimated that in the military war more than 100,000 were killed, and 100,000 maimed during the 15-year war. The legitimacy of the Taif agreement was contested by a portion of the population who viewed it as means to institutionalize a confessional political system. Popular protests occurred intermittently between 1989 and 1990 in support of the stand taken by the 1989 interim prime minister in Lebanon, General Michel Aoun. The General Michel Aoun demanded the withdrawal of Syrian and Israeli forces as a condition to having free parliamentary elections; the goal of the then-interim government. He contested these two occupations as justified by so-called “internal confessional conflict”, which was more of a series of foreign military manipulations. In October 1990 the Syrian occupation drove the head of the interim government, the General Aoun, into exile to Paris and the Lebanese patriotic movement he led became an underground one until the Syrian withdrawal in 2005.

On May 22, 2000, Israel unilaterally completed its withdrawal from the south of Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 of 1978. On September 2 2004, the United Nations Security Council, recalling previous resolutions, especially 425 (1978), 520 (1982) and 1553 (July 2004), approved Resolution 1559, sponsored by the US and France, demanding that Syria, though not mentioned by name, should withdraw its troops from Lebanon. "All foreign forces should withdraw from Lebanon" to allow free elections. The enactors of the Taif agreement however did not enact the clause asking the Syrian occupation to withdraw from Lebanon, or heed the UN Security Council’s decision. The Lebanese patriotic movement has intensively lobbied for the withdrawal of the Syrian army from Lebanon since 1989, in governments throughout the western world. This withdrawal was catalyzed in its final stage by the assassination of Prime Minister Hariri in 2005.

Reconstruction
The country is recovering from the effects of the war, with foreign investment and tourism on the rise. Syrian forces occupied large areas of the country until April 2005 (see Cedar Revolution below), and Iran exercises heavy influence over Hezbollah forces in the Beqaa Valley and Southern Lebanon. Nevertheless, areas of Lebanon and Beirut in particular are moving toward a sense of normality and stability. Lebanese civil society enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world. After twelve years, the reconstruction of downtown Beirut is largely complete. Lebanon's telcommunication rehabilitation is well underway, and in 2004 and 2005 foreign investment in the country topped $1 billion. Solidere has also announced many projects that will be complete in 2007.

Cedar Revolution (Uprising of Independence)
Note: International media coined the term "Cedar Revolution", but Lebanese media also uses the term "Intifada (uprising) of Independence."

Hariri assassination
On February 14, 2005, after 10 years of relative political stability, Lebanon was shaken by the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri in a car-bomb explosion. It is widely believed that Syria was responsible for the attack, due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and to the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Syria, however, denies any involvement. Some sources also suggest a cover up of criminal evidence by Lebanese authorities.

On June 2, 2005, the journalist and historian Samir Kassir, also a founding member of the Democratic Left Movement was assassinated by a car bomb.

Less than one month later, on June 21, 2005, George Hawi, the former secretary general of the Lebanese Communist Party was also assassinated by a car bomb in Beirut.

On December 12, 2005, the journalist Gebran Tueni, editor-in-chief and CEO of the An-Nahar newspaper, was assassinated by a car bomb in the suburbs of Beirut.

On September 25, 2005, there was a failed assassination attempt on a Lebanese Broadcasting Corp News Anchor, in which May Chidiac lost her left leg below the knee, her left arm was severely injured and was amputated. Since then, May Chidiac won the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize 2006.

Demonstrations
The assassination of Hariri resulted in huge anti-Syrian protests by Lebanese citizens in Beirut demanding the resignation of the pro-Syrian government. Following the examples of the Rose Revolution and Orange Revolution in 2004, the popular action was dubbed the "Cedar Revolution" by the US State Department, a name which quickly caught on among the international media. On February 28, 2005, as over 70,000 people demonstrated in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned. They remained in office temporarily in a caretaker role prior to the appointment of replacements, as outlined by the constitution.

In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration of 1.2 million people, staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.

On March 14, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with up to 1.5 million people. Protestors of all sects (even including a number of Shiites) marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian occupation. The march reiterated their will for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.

In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut. Although the damage was mostly material, these acts demonstrate the danger of Lebanon relapsing into sectarian strife.

Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria withdrew its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. The last Syrian uniformed soldier left Lebanon on April 26, 2005. On April 27, 2005, the Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day.

Parliamentary elections
After weeks of unsuccessful negotiations to form a new government, Prime Minister Omar Karami resigned the post for the third time in his political career on 13 April 2005. Two days later, Najib Mikati, a US-educated millionaire businessman and former Minister of Transportation and Public Works, was appointed Prime Minister-designate. A moderate pro-Syrian, Mikati secured the post through the support of the Opposition, which had previously boycotted such negotiations.

During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament.

The combinations were interesting in that in some areas the anti-Syrian coalition allied with Hezbollah and others with Amal. They did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafic Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of retired army general Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. Aoun is arguably the strongest Christian figure in the new parliament: known previously for his anti-Syrian sentiment, Aoun aligned with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and Michel Murr. Their alliance dominated the north and the Metn District of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Joumblat joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah (on the USA list of terrorist organizations) and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Bekaa, and Baabda-Aley district of Mount Lebanon. This alliance proved temporary and the last vestiges of civility between Joumblatt, who has called for the disarmament of Hezbollah, and the Shi'ite coalition came crashing down in December 2005. On the 6th of Febraury 2006 Hezbollah signed a memorandum of understanding with Michel Aoun.

New government
After the elections, Hariri's Future Movement party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister. His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament despite the lack of representation of Gen. Aoun.

On July 18, Lebanon's newly elected parliament, dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition, approved a motion to free Samir Geagea, who had spent most of the past 11 years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news violating all his basic human rights. The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Emile Lahoud the next day. The following months proved the government's inaptitude to begin the economical/political reforms promised to the people. Little has been done to pull the country out of the economic crisis in which it lingers still. Whilst the government loses credibility, the opposition, mainly comprised of Amal and Hezbollah (who are part of the government) and Gen. Aoun, is growing in popularity, even amongst other comunities than Christians and Shi'as. Since the beginning of May, a series of demonstrations and strikes are beginning to appear, proof of the people's discontent.

Criminal investigation
On September 1, 2005, four current and former officials of Lebanon -- the former head of General Security Maj Gen Jamil Sayyad, the former chief of police Maj Gen Ali Hajj, the former military intelligence chief Brig Gen Raymond Azar, and the commander of the Republican Guard Brig Gen Mustafa Hamdan -- were charged in connection with Hariri's assassination.

On October 21, Detlev Mehlis, lead investigator in the UN Hariri Probe released the report of the investigation. The report said that "many leads point to the direct involvement of Syrian Officials".

Following of the appointment of Mehlis successor, the Belgian Serge Brammertz, in January 2006 the investigation has taken a different course after the new investigator decided to throw out evidence that Melhis had earlier relied on. Brammertz' investigation has been conducted in a far more discreet manner and has been marked by a considerable more positive tone between the UN team and Damascus. Brammertz' 30-page report of June 2006 accused no specific party of perpetrating the crime, while asking for the investigation's mandate to be extended for another year.

Withdrawal of Syrian troops
Maj Gen Jamil Sayyed, the top Syrian ally in the Lebanese security forces, resigned on April 25, 2005. The following day the last 250 Syrian troops withdrew from Lebanon.

During the departure ceremonies, Syria's Chief of Staff Gen Ali Habib said that Syria's president had decided to recall his troops after the Lebanese army had been "rebuilt on sound national foundations and became capable of protecting the state."

UN forces led by Senegalese Brig Gen Mouhamadou Kandji were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by UN Security Council Resolution 1559.

Culture of Lebanon

Lebanon has been a major crossroads of civilizations for millennia, so it is perhaps unsurprising that this small country would possess an extraordinarily rich and vibrant culture. Lebanon's wide array of ethnic and religious groups contributes to the country's rich cuisine, musical and literary traditions, and festivals. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theaters, and public spaces. Lebanese society is modern, educated, and perhaps comparable to European societies of the Mediterranean. Lebanon and in particular Beirut, has become the cultural center of the Arab world. Lebanon is a member state of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. This is why most Lebanese are bilingual, speaking Arabic and French; however, English has become popular, especially among university students. The country is not only where Christianity intermingles with Islam, but Lebanon is also an Arab gateway to Europe and a European bridge to the Arab world.

Lebanon also hosts several prestigious universities, including the Lebanese University, the American University of Beirut, the Université Saint-Joseph, and the Lebanese American University.

Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at Baalbek, Beiteddine, and Byblos.

Arabness
Some Lebanese nationals, particularly Christians, tend to emphasize aspects of Lebanon's non-Arab history. Some Christians even resist being classified as Arabs at all.

Over the centuries, Maronites formed a bond with the Pope and in the French period Maronites eagerly took part in France's mission civilisatrice. There is also an old Maronite standard, dating from the early 19th century writings of Tannus al Shidyaq, that the Maronites are the direct descendents of the Phoenicians. In the 1920s Michel Chiha expanded this idea of Phoenicianness.

In a concession to Lebanon's Eastern and Western heritage, some Lebanese prefer to see Lebanon as part of "Mediterranean" or "Levantine" civilization, neither Arab nor European.

Language
Lebanon's official language is Arabic, but French, Armenian, and English are also widely spoken. Many Lebanese in fact speak a patois of some combination of these four languages, most commonly an Arabic-French mixture. Virtually all Lebanese are bilingual.

Spoken Lebanese Arabic is a dialect of Levantine Arabic, differing from the literary Modern Standard Arabic.

Creative Arts
Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and wild beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms. Perhaps the most well-known and listened to Lebanese singer is Fairuz. Her songs are broadcast every morninng on most radio stations and many tv channels, both in Lebanon and other countries in the Middle East and the Arab world in general. Other artists are also well known and loved like Majida El Roumi, Marcel Khalife who is also a composer, oud player, and Julia Boutros. Some Lebanese artists like Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'Jabali' (from the mountains), while many other artists incorporate western style into their songs. Lebanese artists are perhaps the most popular in the Middle East alongside Egyptian performers, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Haifa Wehbe, Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hejazy and Majida El Roumi.

Cuisine
Lebanese cuisine is shared by many countries in the Eastern Mediterranean, namely Syria, Turkey, Greece and Cyprus.

The Lebanese national dish is the kibbe, a meat pie made from finely minced lamb and burghul wheat. The national drink is arak, a strong anise-flavored liquor made from fermented grape juice. It is usually drunk with water and ice, which turns the clear liquid milky-white, and always accompanies food.

Traditional Lebanese meals begin with a wide array of mezze-- small savoury dishes, such as dips, salads, pastries, and vegetables. The mezze are typically followed by a selection of grilled meats and fish. In general, meals are finished with Arabic coffee and fresh fruit, though sometimes a selection of sweets will be offered as well.

M'jadra, a thick stew of onions, rice and lentils, is often considered a poor man's food and is eaten around Lent by Lebanese immigrants to the United States. It is never served to company by traditional Lebanese families.

Foreign cuisines -- especially French, Italian, American, and Asian -- are all easily available at restaurants throughout the country. Supermarkets generally stock a wide variety of Lebanese and European products.

Lebanon also boasts a number of internationally-renowned wineries, which are mostly located in the fertile Bekaa Valley. These include Chateau Ksara, Chateau Kefraya, Chateau Musar, and many others. The most common Lebanese beer is Almaza, which is often enjoyed at the beach on a hot summer day.

Last update on 12 March 2008